Photoelectrochemical secondary cell and battery

ABSTRACT

A photoelectrochemical secondary cell comprising a photocatalytic anode, or photoanode; an anode; a cathode comprising a metal hydride; electrolyte; separator; and case at least a portion of which is transparent to the electromagnetic radiation required by said photoanode to charge said photoelectrochemical secondary cell.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a divisional of copending application Ser. No.14/721,213, filed May 26, 2015 (Publication No. 2016/0365615975), theentire disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference.Application Ser. No. 14/721,213 claims benefit of provisionalApplication Ser. No. 62/004,159, filed May 28, 2014.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a photoelectrochemical secondary celland battery thereof comprising: positive electrodes comprising at leasta photocatalytic anode, or photoanode, and an anode such as of nickelhydroxide material; a negative electrode (cathode) comprisingsubstantially a metal hydride; electrolyte; separator; and case at leasta portion of which is transparent to electromagnetic radiation requiredby said photoanode to charge said photoelectrochemical secondary cell.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Personal digital devices, distributed electricity for the developing aswell as developed world, electric vehicles, telecom equipment, spacevehicles, and military field apparatus, to name only a few applications,all require and will benefit from a high energy density battery that isdirectly and efficiently self-recharging in sunlight or even ambientartificial light.

Batteries coupled with chargers that employ photovoltaic (PV) cells,panels or arrays are ubiquitous, but they do not improve the chargingefficiency because they do nothing to change the oxygen evolutionpotential of the anode that utilizes some of the power that could havegone into charging. And silicon-based PV technology is not compatiblewith the environment in alkaline batteries and so they cannot be trulyintegral.

Fuel cells are making inroads in remote power and backup powerapplications, but face an uphill climb to replace batteries because theyfurther require a hydrogen source that, if renewable, comprises at leastphotovoltaic (PV) panels, electrolyzer, purifier, compressor, andstorage cylinder. All these discrete components must be managed, andtogether comprise an expensive, bulky and inelegant system withreliability issues arising from the integration of so many components.Moreover, the stack-up efficiency losses of these components (50%electrolyzer energy loss, 50% fuel cell energy loss, and 10% compressionenergy loss, and 15% solar to electricity PV conversion) results in lessthan 4% of the incoming sunlight being converted to electricity for usewhen there is no sunlight (as compared to 15% directsolar-to-electricity PV conversion efficiency).

Fuel cell systems further require water replenishment. Whiletheoretically the water from the fuel cell exhaust can be condensed,captured and used for replenishment, in practice this is not veryeffective or efficient and requires additional hardware and managementthereof. One can imagine the difficulty in replenishing water in a fuelcell system at the top of a telephone pole or telecomm tower, and inwinter for example.

Some fuel cell manufacturers have developed fuel cells that can beoperated in reverse as electrolyzers to produce their own hydrogensupply, and in some cases reasonable hydrogen compression can beachieved on board electrochemically as well, thereby removing thediscrete electrolyzer and compressor components from the system.However, such reversible fuel cells still suffer from “round trip”efficiency of less than 25%, so when powered by 15% efficient PV,solar-to-electricity-to-hydrogen and back to electricity is again lessthan 4% efficient. This is because it is difficult to optimize the samedevice for operation as both fuel cell and electrolyzer. Other issuesinclude high cost, difficulty to reduce package size, lifetime, andinadequate on-board hydrogen storage density as compressed gas comparedto a discrete compressor and storage cylinder.

The compressor and cylinder in the first system example above can inprinciple also be replaced by use of discrete dry metal hydride (MH) forhydrogen storage, but still some amount of compression and/or heatingare required for the metal hydride to absorb hydrogen. And becauseheating of the MH is required to release the hydrogen there is aparasitic loss (which may not be a problem when there is an adequatesource of waste heat available, but this is unlikely in remoteapplications).

As is well known in the art, metal hydrides can be employed for storingelectricity through electrochemical storage of hydrogen in Ni-MH cellsand batteries comprised of such cells. When charging, such cells areessentially alkaline electrolyzers, except that the hydrogen produced isa means to electrical storage and generation, rather than an end productas with electrolyzers. When an electrical potential is applied, hydrogenis both produced and absorbed by the metal hydride (MH) cathode alongwith some amount of oxygen evolution at the anode. The latter is, forbattery purposes, a parasitic energy loss. Absorption, as well asrelease during discharge, of hydrogen by the metal hydride is governedby the electrical voltage (potential), and polarity applied to the cellelectrodes. This is a much simpler, reliable, and more efficient way tocharge the MH with hydrogen than is the case for dry external metalhydrides. In general, Ni-MH cells utilize the aforementioned negative MHelectrode for reversible electrochemical storage of hydrogen, and apositive electrode of nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)₂) material. Nickelhydroxide has been used for years as an active material for the positiveelectrode of alkaline batteries, including the nickel cadmium (Ni—Cd)batteries that have been largely supplanted by Ni-MH technology.

The negative and positive electrodes are spaced apart in the alkalineelectrolyte. Upon application of an electrical potential across a Ni-MHcell, the MH material of the negative electrode is charged by theelectrochemical absorption of hydrogen and the electrochemicalgeneration of hydroxy ions OH⁻:

M+H₂O+e ⁻←^(Discharge) _(Charge)→MH+OH⁻  (1)

The negative electrode (cathode) reactions are reversible. Upondischarge, the stored hydrogen is released to form a water molecule andevolve an electron.

The reactions that take place at the nickel hydroxide positive electrode(anode) of a Ni-MH cell are:

Ni(OH)₂+OH⁻←_(Discharge) ^(Charge)→NiOOH+H₂O+e ⁻  (2)

Hence, the charging process for a nickel hydroxide positive electrode inan alkaline storage battery is governed by the following equation:

Ni(OH)₂+OH⁻→NiOOH+H₂O+e ⁻  (3)

The charging efficiency of the positive electrode and the utilization ofthe positive electrode material is effected by the energy-parasiticoxygen evolution process which is controlled by the reaction:

2OH⁻→H₂O+½O₂+2e ⁻  (4)

During the charging process, a portion of the current applied to thebattery for the purpose of charging, is instead consumed by the oxygenevolution reaction (4). The oxygen evolution of equation (4) is notdesirable and contributes to lower utilization rates of the positiveactive material upon charging. (An analogy can be made to discrete dryMH that absorbs more gaseous hydrogen as the pressure of the hydrogen isincreased, where in Ni-MH cells the “pressure” is the electricalcurrent, or rate of hydrogen production, during charging that isproportional to the degree of utilization of the MH storage).

One reason both reactions (oxygen and hydrogen evolution) occursimultaneously is that their electrochemical potential values are veryclose. Anything that can be done to widen the gap between them, loweringthe nickel (or anode) electrochemical potential in reaction (3) orraising the electrochemical potential of the oxygen evolution reaction(4), will contribute to higher utilization rates (higher hydrogenproduction rate and therefore higher absorption by the MH electrode).U.S. Pat. No. 6,017,655 is one attempt to widen this gap by use ofdisclosed additives to the nickel hydroxide anode. It is noted that theelectrochemical potential of the oxygen evolution reaction (4) is alsoreferred to as the oxygen evolution potential.

Another way that is disclosed herein is to separate the functions of theanode, reserving use of the nickel hydroxide (or other) anode fordischarge and for supplemental charging only, while adding aphotocatalytic anode, or photoanode, for charging that, when activatedby light, reduces or eliminates the required electrochemical potential.Photoanodes are semiconductors, modified semiconductors, orsemiconductor compounds in monolithic form, or paste on monolithic form,that absorb and then convert photons of light into pairs of surfacecharges that can either electrolyze water directly or reduce the voltagenormally required for electrolysis. Ideally such semiconductorphotoanodes have conduction and valance band edges that overlap eitherthe hydrogen evolution potential, the oxygen evolution potential, orboth. If both, then spontaneous water electrolysis occurs when thephotoanode is illuminated; this is known as photolysis. Otherwise a biasvoltage or overpotential voltage that is considerably less than even thetheoretical 1.48 VDC electrolysis potential, is required to initiateelectrolysis by bridging the gap between either band edge and itsrespective evolution potential, in which case the process is calledphotoelectrochemical hydrogen production. (For the purpose of describingthe invention herein, whether the photoanode requires no bias or somenon-zero bias voltage the resulting secondary cell is called“photoelectrochemical”.) For example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,485,799 to Guerra,and U.S. Pat. No. 8,673,399 to Guerra et al disclose photoanodes inwhich nanostructures strain a semiconductor such as titanium dioxide(titania or TiO.sub.2) such that the bandgap of the semiconductor isaltered to favorably absorb more of the solar spectrum and also the bandedges are more favorably aligned with the hydrogen and/or oxygenevolution potentials.

So semiconductor photoanodes, when illuminated with light having energyhυ where h is Plank's Constant and u is the frequency of that light,greatly reduce or even eliminate the applied electrical potential (orvoltage) required because a band edge is either close to or overlaps theoxygen and/or hydrogen evolution potential(s). Absorption of the lightenergy forms charge pairs of electrons (e⁻) and holes (p⁺) at thesemiconductor surface (SC) as in (5) below.

hυ+SC→(e ⁻ +p ⁺)  (5)

Except that the electrons and positive charges arise from interaction oflight with the semiconductor photoanode rather than from an externalapplied electrical potential, the governing reaction for oxygenevolution (6) can be seen to be identical with (4) above for aconventional anode:

2p ⁺+2OH⁻→H₂O+½O₂  (6)

Because a Ni-MH battery is, in the charge mode, basically an alkalineelectrolyzer, it will be seen that it can be improved by addition of aphotoanode. Presently, external electricity applied to the nickelhydroxide anode and MH cathode produces, from the aqueous electrolyte,hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at the anode. The hydrogen isimmediately absorbed by the metal hydride for use to produce electricityduring later discharge. (This is one of the sources of efficiency in theMH architecture in that less energy is required for the hydrogen to beabsorbed by the MH than to be evolved from a “normal” cathode.) The highpower density of Ni-MH batteries comes from the fact that hydrogen canbe stored in metal hydrides at energy densities even greater than thatof liquified hydrogen. The theoretical voltage required to split thewater in the electrolyte is 1.23 VDC. However, the overvoltage that isrequired to overcome the oxygen potential brings the actual theoreticalvoltage to 1.48 VDC. An electrolyzer that can produce hydrogen with 1.48VDC would then have an electrolyzer, or Faraday, efficiency of 100%. Inpractice, most electrolyzers are only 50% efficient, requiring nearly 3VDC, to 75% efficient, requiring 2 VDC. Similarly, the electrolysisefficiency during the charging cycle in a typical Ni-MH battery is about66%. Addition of a photocatalytic anode, or photoanode, reduces or eveneliminates the amount of electrical power required to electrolyze waterto produce hydrogen. Light works with the photocatalyst to eitherelectrolyze the water directly, with no external electrical powerrequired, in so-called “zero bias” or photolytic mode, or withsignificantly reduced electrical power in photoelectrochemical mode. Forexample, the photoanode taught in U.S. Pat. No. 8,673,399 is able toproduce hydrogen from water even without external electricity, and hasmaximum hydrogen production at only 0.9 VDC, or half to even a third ofthe voltage that a conventional electrolyzer requires to produce anequivalent amount of hydrogen.

Therefore the present invention discloses a photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell that can employ these photoanodes as well as any otherphotoanodes for the charging cycle in a metal hydride battery.

Furthermore, charging of the photoelectrochemical secondary cell, or abattery comprised of multiple such cells, requires only sunlight fortrickle charging. This is valuable in applications where an externalelectrical source that may not be readily available, such as to powertelecom devices that are often in remote locations or atop towers andpoles, but also for personal electronic devices or batteries for space.And while faster charging will still require an external electricalsupply, that supply power requirement is greatly reduced by theproperties of the photoanode.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An objective of the present invention is an integrated efficientrechargeable battery for use in remote locations, telecom, distributedpower, personal digital devices, space platforms, and electric vehiclesthat is self-rechargeable in sunlight or artificial light and thatfurther employs light to increase the efficiency of charging withexternal electricity.

This and other objectives are satisfied by a photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell, comprising both a photocatalytic anode, or photoanode,and an anode such as of nickel hydroxide material; a negative electrode,or cathode, comprising a metal hydride; and electrolyte.

This and other objectives are satisfied by a photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell that further comprises separator materials between saidcathode and anodes; and case that has at least a portion that istransparent to at least the electromagnetic radiation required by saidphotoanode to charge said photoelectrochemical secondary cell.

This and other objectives are satisfied by said photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell wherein said photoanode and anode are electricallyseparate.

This and other objectives are satisfied by a multitude of saidphotoelectrochemical secondary cells adjacent to one another andcoplanar and connected electrically in series or in parallel to form asubstantially light-rechargeable MH battery.

This and other objectives are satisfied by a multitude of saidphotoelectrochemical secondary cells stacked vertically with space andmeans between each of said cells to facilitate guiding of external lightto said photoanodes and connected to form a substantiallylight-rechargeable MH battery having a common case, a portion of saidcase having a window that is transparent to at least the electromagneticradiation required by said photoanodes to charge said rechargeablebattery.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The structure and operation of the invention, together with the objectsand advantages thereof, may best be understood by reading the detaileddescription to follow in connection with the drawings in which uniquereference numerals have been used throughout for each part and wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic cross-section of the photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell wherein photoanode and anode are conjoined physically butmay or may not be electrically isolated, with the electrical isolationcase shown.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-section of the photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell wherein photoanode and anode are physically andelectrically separate and further showing block diagram of means forexternal charging management.

FIG. 3 is a schematic frontal view of a substantially light-rechargeableMH battery comprising photoelectrochemical secondary cells such as inFIG. 1 or 2 above positioned adjacent to each other in planararrangement.

FIG. 4 is a schematic cross-section view of a substantiallylight-rechargeable MH battery comprising photoelectrochemical secondarycells stacked atop one another and further comprising light guidingmeans.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein is a photoelectrochemical secondary cell used singly orin multiples to form a metal hydride (MH) rechargeable battery that is(1) more efficiently charged and (2) is charged with light alone or (3)light together with electricity or (4) electricity alone. Saidphotoelectrochemical secondary cell comprises a photocatalytic anode, orphotoanode, an anode, a metal hydride cathode, separator means forkeeping gas products separate while passing ions, and case thatcomprises at least in part a window that is able to transmit at leastthe part of the electromagnetic spectrum required by said photoanode toproduce hydrogen and therefore to charge the cell.

Referring to FIG. 1, in a first embodiment, the photoanode 1 and anode 2share the same proximal position but each have their own conductiveelectrode bases 3A and 3B, respectively, which may comprise titanium,nickel, carbon, graphite, or other conductive material suitable for thealkaline environment. Alternately, photoanode and anode may be conjoinedphysically and electrically on a common conductive base. This isdesirable for applications where the battery is always trickle chargingin light and discharging only in dark, as in a solar-powered droneaircraft for example; having the discharge anode conjoined with thephotoanode is advantageous, saving weight and cost. Electrical shortingis averted by an external charging management circuit 12, shown in FIG.2 but applicable to all other figures including FIG. 1 as well, which atleast connects photoanode to cathode for charge, and disconnects uponfull charge and for discharge. Anode 2 material can be nickel hydroxideon nickel, mixed metal oxides on titanium (MMO), plated nickel or nickelhydroxide film on titanium, nickel or nickel hydroxide particles ontitanium, or other suitable anode. Louvers or other apertures 4 areformed into the photoanode 1 and anode 2 combination in order to providean ion path between the illuminated surface of the photoanode and thecathode 6. Louvers are advantageous over simple holes, for example,because no light-receiving photoanode surface is lost. Gas separationmeans 5 can be non-woven felts of polyolefin, polyethylene,polypropylene, or other. Typically their thickness is about 2 to 4 mm.Additionally, the gas separation means can have surfaces that arethermally, chemically, or otherwise treated to prevent or reduce gasbubbles from sticking to its surfaces. Gas separation means are sealedto the case 9. Where the case 9 is acrylic, one means of said sealingcan be accomplished with solvent welding using thick acrylic solventcement, for example. (The natural white scattering color of most gasseparation means can be used to advantage in the embodiment in FIG. 4,for example, where light is scattered back to the photoanodes.) Thecathode 6 comprises metal hydride 7 in electrical contact with a nickelfoam ribbon 8, for example. Case 9 includes a light-transmissive window10 as well as over-pressure port (not shown for clarity) as is standardin MH battery art. Window 10 can be of ultraviolet-transmitting (UVT)acrylic, borosilicate 3.3 glass, or other material. Further, it can becoated with anti-static, anti-reflection, heat-rejection, or otheroptical coatings and structures including but not limited to diffractiongratings and holographic concentrating or light-directing optics. Forsimplicity in illustration, the case shown is of a non-conductivematerial and so electrode-to-case isolation is not required or shown.However it will be understood that the case can be comprised of any ofthe materials and lined materials now commonly used in the alkalinebattery art. All above components are immersed in electrolyte 11 thatcan be KOH, preferably 26% by weight, or potassium carbonate preferablywith pH of about 11.7 to 12. Additionally the electrolyte can includeadditives such as methanol (only for the KOH as it is immiscible withpotassium carbonate), thickeners, co-electrolytes, or other such as toincrease refractive index and/or to match the refractive index to thatof window 10. Both case and window are shown to be substantially planarin the figures, but it will be understood that they can also have convexor concave cylindrical surfaces. The latter is useful in that itprovides extra strength should excess pressure build up in the case,either upon failure of a vent, or to allow intentional higher-pressureoperating conditions, while the former can provide an optically moreefficient focal plane for an external light concentrator optic.

Referring to FIG. 2, in a second embodiment, the nickel hydroxide (orother) anode 2 is separate from the photoanode 1 and is on the oppositeside of the metal hydride cathode 6, with gas separators 5 placedbetween photoanode and cathode and cathode and anode and again aresealed to case 9. This embodiment is preferred when the batteries willroutinely be charged both with the photoanode as well as the anodesimultaneously, as the latter will depress the photoanode charging tosome degree if both are proximal and on the same side of the cathode. Itis important to note that in this case the cathode 6, although shared bythe photoanode and the anode electrically, is sealed to the case (unlikeFIG. 1), providing a physical and electrochemical separation between theelectrolyte in the photoanode volume and the electrolyte in the anodevolume of the cell. This completes the separation and eliminates“cross-talk” between photoanode and anode that, again, during fullcharging would reduce the photoanode charging contribution. Additionallyshown in FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a charging management means 12that can either be external to the battery, as part of the device intowhich the battery is inserted, or internal to the battery (meaningattached to and integrated with but outside the case 9). Chargingmanagement means 12 receives the photoanode, cathode, and anode asinputs, and has discharge positive and negative outputs which can alsofunction as charging inputs.

Referring to FIG. 3, multiple photoelectrochemical secondary cells 13are mounted adjacent to form a planar battery 14 that can be positionedto face the light source. Adjacent cells 13 can be connectedelectrically in series or in parallel for either higher voltage orhigher current respectively. Further, common connector 18 is for thephotoanodes/anodes while common connector 17 is for the cathodes. Inthis embodiment the louvers 4 are again required in photoanodes 1 toprovide an ion pathway to the cathodes. Although not visible in thisfrontal view, the photoanode, cathode, and anode architecture can bethat of either photoelectrochemical secondary cell illustrated in FIG. 1or 2 and described above. Each cell 13 has a window 10 as previouslydescribed.

Referring to FIG. 4, multiple photoelectrochemical secondary cells 13are stacked vertically with spacing that allows sunlight to fullyilluminate each cell with or without light guide means 15. All electrodesurfaces are substantially perpendicular to the receiving window 16,rather than parallel to the window 10 of previous embodiments describedabove. Light guide means 15 can include light scattering, waveguiding orlight-piping, diffraction, refraction, or reflection to each photoanode1 by a portion of the gas separator material 5 above said photoanode orby a specialized separate optical surface or surfaces. The receivingwindow 16, as with the receiving windows 10 in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3, may beplaced at the focus of a light concentrator, or can just operate inambient light. In this embodiment each photoanode 1 is directly facingmetal hydride cathodes 6 with direct ion pathway (physically only thegas separators 5 are between them, but they have low ionic resistance)so there is no need for the louvers 4 in the other embodiments. Further,eliminating the louvers eliminates the cross-talk between the photoanodeand anode that served to depress the photoanode charging contributionduring simultaneous anode charging as described in FIG. 2 above, so thatthey can be conjoined. Receiving window 16, as with windows 10, can bean ultraviolet-transmissive (cast is preferred but extruded isacceptable) UVT acrylic that is produced by Evonic Degussa, Cyro, andothers, or it can be borosilicate 3.3 glass from Schott and others.Though not shown in the figures, the window can further be coated withan anti-reflection coating, scratch-resistant coating, anti-staticcoating, or other optical coating such as a diffractive or holographicoptical grating or other holographic optical structure. The remainder ofthe case can be solvent-welded, ultrasonically-welded, cast, orinjection-compression molded acrylic or other plastic, or it can besteel or other metal suitable for the alkaline environment, with orwithout linings. As with the embodiment in FIG. 2, the cathodes 6 in theembodiment in FIG. 4 are sealed to the window 16 as well as to the caseso that they are shared electronically by the nearest adjacentphotoanode 1 and anode 2, but they provide a physical andelectrochemical isolation between the electrolyte in the photoanodevolume and the electrolyte in the anode volume, again to eliminatecross-talk during charging. Additionally, the battery embodiment shownin FIG. 4 comprises the electrode architecture of both cell embodimentsshown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Namely, in each cell 13 the photoanode 1 andanode 2 are placed on opposite sides of cathodes 6 as in FIG. 2, buteach photoanode 1 also is proximal to the anode of the next cell, as inFIG. 1, with a separator placed between their respective bases both forelectrical isolation as well as cell body isolation from the next cell.

It will further be understood that the photoelectrochemical secondarycell and substantially light-rechargeable MH batteries comprised thereofclaimed in this invention and described herein, can have the samephysical form as the vast variety of batteries in the art, and are notlimited to the shapes shown schematically in the figures. So forexample, they can be cylindrical as well as rectangular, they can haveaspect ratios nearing unity or they can be flat.

Returning briefly to charging management, to allow the user to choosebetween zero-bias trickle charging anytime the battery is illuminatedand higher-rate light-assisted charging, a connecting busbar can beplaced between the external terminal of the photoanode 1 and of the MHcathode 6. In this mode, anytime the battery is illuminated, it will becharged at a low rate, or trickle-charged. (Note that this only worksfor the case where the photoanode and anode are electrically isolated.)Removing this busbar and connecting an external power supply between thephotoanode 1 and MH cathode 6 terminals allows charging at higher rates,with maximum charge rate occurring at about 1 VDC. If the photoanode andanode share the same conductive base, then a diode can be used in placeof the busbar, which has the advantage that it can always remain inplace without shorting, but at the cost of some amount of voltage dropthat even the most efficient diodes exhibit. Finally, even higher-ratecharging can be achieved in the normal fashion, with a charging powersupply connected between the anode 1 and the cathode 6. When the batteryis integral with a device, then the management of charging modality justdescribed can be more conveniently and effectively accomplished with anintegrated circuit (shown in block diagram form as 12 in FIG. 2)designed for this task external to the photoelectrochemical secondarycell battery but integral with said device. Said management of chargingmodality may also be software-controllable. And said integrated circuitmay also be integral to said photoelectrochemical secondary cellbattery.

Photoanode 1 may be any photocatalytic anode or photoanode materialknown in the art. It is within the spirit and intent of this inventionthat any and all kinds of photoanode materials may be used. Examples ofpossible photoanode materials are provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,485,799and 8,673,399, the contents of which are incorporated by referenceherein, disclose photoanodes in which nanostructures strain asemiconductor such as titanium dioxide (titania or TiO₂) such that thebandgap of the semiconductor is altered to favorably absorb more of thesolar spectrum and also the band edges are more favorably aligned withthe hydrogen and/or oxygen evolution potentials.

Additional photoanode 1 materials, whether in the art or not, are alsowithin the scope and spirit of this invention. They include but are notlimited to (1) titania that is dyed to absorb light beyond that which isnormally absorbed by titania, (2) titania that is doped with nitrogen,carbon, silicon, or other element, (3) strontium titanate, (4) compoundsand alloys of titania and titanium with tungsten or tungsten oxide,cadmium sulfide, iron or oxides of iron, silicon, or other, (5) siliconseeded with protective nickel surface particles, (6) nanotubes oftitanium dioxide further comprising dopants, dyes, or compounds aslisted above, (7) carbon nanotubes further comprising semiconductormaterials, (8) and graphene alone or combined with photoanode materialslisted above, (9) photoanodes that incorporate either quantum dots orphotonic bandgap crystals for enhanced light absorption, and (10) any orall of the preceding photoanode materials in combination with thestrained titania photoanode taught in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,485,799 and8,673,399.

The nickel hydroxide material for the anode 2, that is to say other thanthe photoanode 1, may be any nickel hydroxide material known in the art.It is within the spirit and intent of this invention that any and allkinds of nickel hydroxide materials may be used. Examples of possiblenickel hydroxide materials are provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,348,822 and5,637,423 and 6,017,655 the contents of which are incorporated byreference herein.

The anode 2 may also comprise materials and anodes not now found incommercial Ni-MH batteries. For example, a titanium metal base (rod,plate, sheet, foil, expanded mesh, or other) coated with mixed metaloxides (MMO, typically a mixture of oxides of ruthenium, titanium, andiridium) or with nickel or nickel hydroxide film or particles may alsoserve as a suitable anode. These anodes can have other conductive basessuch as but not limited to carbon and graphite, or other conductivematerial that can function as either anode (during charging) or cathode(during discharging) in an alkaline environment. Means of manufacturingsaid anodes includes but is not limited to steps that may comprise oneor more of applying a paste, sintering, calcification, thermaloxidation, anodizing, alloying, plating, powder coating, mechanicalcompression, casting, vacuum deposition, chemical vapor deposition, orother. Anodes formed with these or other processes and with these orother materials are within the spirit and scope of this invention.

In general, a photoelectrochemical secondary cell comprises, just as anelectrochemical cell does, at least one positive electrode, at least onenegative electrode, and an electrolyte surrounding the positive andnegative electrodes. In addition, the photoelectrochemical secondarycell further comprises at least one photoanode. The electrolyte 11 is analkaline electrolyte which may comprise a potassium hydroxide solution(KOH) or a potassium carbonate solution (K₂CO₃), and may furthercomprise other electrolytes as well as additives and/or co-electrolytesfor improved performance such as but not limited to low or hightemperature performance, or more efficient gas release, or beneficialleak-containment properties such as viscosity or polymerization, orhigher index of refraction.

The metal hydride negative electrode 6 comprises metal hydride material7 affixed to an electrically conductive substrate 8, which is often anickel foam ribbon but can also be carbon, graphite, or titanium. It iswithin the spirit and intent of this invention that any and all kinds ofmetal hydride materials and substrates may be used, including but notlimited to those surveyed herein. Since the early work at Battelle inthe 1960's shortly after invention of the Ni-MH battery, which employednegative electrodes based on sintered Ti2Ni+TiNi+x alloys, manyimprovements have been made and new materials found. Intermetalliccompounds with preferred hydrogen storage properties for Ni-MH batteriesare commercially available through sources such as Sigma-Aldrich. One isa metal alloy with elemental form AB₂ is ZrV₂ that forms the hydrideZrV₂H_(5.5) with structure Fd3m. It exhibits high 3.01% hydrogen storageby weight (Wt % H₂) with an equilibrium pressure at temperature Kelvin(P_(eq.), T(K)) of only 10⁻⁸ bar @323° K. One of AB₅ form is LaNi₅, withhydride LaNi₅H₆. With P6/mm structure, it exhibits 1.37 Wt % H₂ at only2 bar and 298° K. And one of form AB is FeTi, forming hydride FeTiH₂.With Pm3m structure, it exhibits 1.89 Wt % H₂ at only 5 bar and 303° K.Additional examples of metal hydride materials are the Ti—V—Zr—Ni typeactive materials such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,551,400 (“the '400patent”) to Sapru, Hong, Fetcenko, and Venkatesan, the disclosure ofwhich is incorporated by reference. These materials reversibly formhydrides in order to store hydrogen.

Further metal hydride materials are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,728,586(“the '586 patent”) to Venkatesan, Reichman, and Fetcenko, thedisclosure of which is incorporated by reference. The '586 patentdescribes a specific sub-class of Ti—V—Ni—Zr alloys comprising Ti, V,Zr, Ni, and a fifth component, Cr. The '586 patent, mentions thepossibility of additives and modifiers beyond the Ti, V, Zr, Ni, and Crcomponents of the alloys, and generally discusses specific additives andmodifiers, the amounts and interactions of these modifiers, and theparticular benefits that could be expected from them. Other examples ofmetal hydride materials are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 5,536,591, thedisclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

In contrast to the Ovonic alloys just described, the older alloys weregenerally considered “ordered” materials that had different chemistry,microstructure, and electrochemical characteristics. The performance ofthe early ordered materials was poor, but in the early 1980's, as thedegree of modification increased (that is as the number and amount ofelemental modifiers increased), their performance began to improvesignificantly. This is due as much to the disorder contributed by themodifiers as it is to their electrical and chemical properties. Thisevolution of alloys from a specific class of “ordered” materials to thecurrent multicomponent, multiphase “disordered” alloys is shown in thefollowing patents: (i) U.S. Pat. No. 3,874,928; (ii) U.S. Pat. No.4,214,043; (iii) U.S. Pat. No. 4,107,395; (iv) U.S. Pat. No. 4,107,405;(v) U.S. Pat. No. 4,112,199; (vi) U.S. Pat. No. 4,125,688 (vii) U.S.Pat. No. 4,214,043; (viii) U.S. Pat. No. 4,216,274; (ix) U.S. Pat. No.4,487,817; (x) U.S. Pat. No. 4,605,603; (xii) U.S. Pat. No. 4,696,873;and (xiii) U.S. Pat. No. 4,699,856. (These references are discussedextensively in U.S. Pat. No. 5,096,667 and this discussion isspecifically incorporated by reference).

Example

A photoelectrochemical secondary cell comprising (1) a photoanode astaught in U.S. Pat. No. 8,673,399 comprising strained titanium dioxideon grade 1 titanium base, (2) a commercially available anode comprisedof mixed metal oxide (MMO) coating on titanium base, (3) a gas separatorcomprising non-woven polyethylene felt, (4) a cathode, and (5) a casecomprising solvent-welded ultraviolet-transmissive acrylic sheet. Thecell outer dimensions are 19 cm wide×11 cm high×1.5 cm depth. Theacrylic is 4 mm thick. The case further comprised vents to vent outexcess gas while containing the electrolyte, with vents also removableto allow electrolyte fill. Both potassium hydroxide (KOH @ 26%) as wellas potassium carbonate (saturated K₂CO₃) were tested as electrolytesindividually. Two grade 2 titanium contacts and one 360 stainless steelcontact protrude through the case and allow the photoanode, anode, andcathode respectively to be accessed electrically through the sealed casein order to measure voltage, current, and to apply a bias voltage. Thelight source was natural sunlight of about 700 watts per square meter(Concord, Mass. at astronomical noon in May) as measured with a ThorLabs radiometer. However, results similar to those in this example werealso obtained with a solar simulator from Oriel. The temperature of theelectrolyte was monitored and kept equal when comparing the chargingrate of the photoanode versus the MMO anode.

This example is simply one illustration of the advantages of thisinvention, and in no way is meant to limit the scope of this inventionor to exclude the use of other photoanodes, anodes, cathodes,electrolytes, separators, or cases. For example, a non-woven polyolefinor non-woven polypropylene felt can also be used as gas separator(s),the photoanode can be any of the photoanodes discussed in thisspecification as well as any other photoanodes including but not limitedto dyed titania, doped titania, tungsten, cadmium sulfide, any of theiron oxides, titania alloyed or compounded with cadmium sulfide ortungsten or any of the iron oxides, silicon with nickel coating, andphotoanodes comprising in part graphene or carbon nanotubes, theconventional anode can be nickel hydroxide as in commercial Ni-MHbatteries or nickel plated onto titanium as film or particles asdescribed earlier in this specification, the cathode can comprise thestandard cathode commercially available in Ni-MH batteries or any of themetal hydrides whether discussed in this specification or not, and thecase can be a metal case and the transparent window can be borosilicate3.3 glass. Similarly, the size can be larger or smaller or thinner orthicker.

The rate of charging of this cell, i.e. hydrogen production at cathode,is indicated by electrical current flow between the photoanode andcathode or the anode and cathode respectively. (A current of 1 ampereindicates hydrogen production at a rate of 6.9 SCCM or standard cubiccentimeters per minute.) Current was measured with a Fluke ammeterconnected between the photoanode and the cathode, and then the MMO anodeand the cathode, respectively, with a direct current (DC) bias voltagesupply also connected and varied between zero VDC and 3 VDC. First thecharging current was obtained with the photoanode in sunlight orartificial light as a function of applied voltage bias to produce acurrent-voltage (IV) curve. Then the same IV curve data were taken forthe MMO anode, with care taken that the electrolyte temperature andlight intensity for both measurements was the same. Further, the area ofthe MMO anode was optimized to produce the highest charging current as afunction of applied voltage.

As taught in U.S. Pat. No. 8,673,399, the strained titania photoanodeproduced hydrogen at even zero volts of bias in sunlight and so is ableto charge with no electricity. Applying a bias voltage increases thecharge rate by at least 3× with maximum charge rate (as indicated by theelectrical current measured by Fluke ammeter) occurring at about 0.9VDC. The MMO anode, on the other hand, required 2.0 VDC to produce thesame charging rate (electrical current) as the photoanode produced atonly 0.9 VDC. However, the MMO anode was also able to produce evenhigher charging rates by increasing the bias voltage to more than 2.0VDC. While this is a good option to have in a battery, the chargingefficiency continues to decrease as the required voltage is increased.

Earlier in the specification the electrolyzer, or Faraday, efficiencywas given as (1.48 V)/(electrolyzer voltage) where 1.48 VDC is thetheoretical electrical potential required to produce hydrogen fromwater. On an electrical energy basis only, the measured photoanodeelectrical potential of 0.9 VDC indicates an efficiency of 164% comparedto 75% for the MMO anode at measured 2.0 VDC. The round trip efficiencyfor Ni-MH batteries is typically 60%, with charging efficiency of about66% and discharge efficiency of 90%. Therefore, because thephotoelectrochemical secondary cell in this example has a chargingefficiency of 164% on an electrical energy basis, a roundtrip efficiencyof 148% follows (with the extra energy supplied of course by light andits interaction with the photocatalytic anode; no violation ofthermodynamic laws are claimed). Because Ni-MH batteries are oftencoupled with PV panels (15% solar to electricity conversion efficiency)in the field, revisiting the discussion in the specification concerningsolar-to-stored-and-discharged electrical efficiency we obtain15%×148%=22%, compared to less than 4% obtained with PV, electrolyzer,compressor and fuel cell. Trickle charging mode (zero bias voltage)results in even higher efficiency. The trade-off clearly is chargingrate, but even if higher charging rates are obtained by using the anodes(as MMO anodes above) in supplemental charging mode, round tripefficiency of close to 100% can be obtained forsolar-to-stored-and-discharged electrical efficiency of 15%, which is tosay lossless storage on an electrical energy basis (i.e., not includingthe light energy received by the photoanode).

The nickel plated titanium anode produced hydrogen at a slightly higherrate than the MMO anode at the same bias voltage. Similarly, the KOHelectrolyte yielded slightly higher hydrogen production rates comparedto the potassium carbonate, but in some cases the latter is less-causticand so the slightly lower charging rate is tolerable.

This example demonstrates that the photoelectrochemical secondary cellcan, with at least one photoanode technology, recharge in light evenwithout external electrical charge, and further that even at maximumcharge rate obtained with external electrical charge, the electricalpower required is less than half that of the MMO anode. In practice, thecell will “trickle” charge whenever there is light available to it, sothat the battery comprised of the cells will always be ready fordischarge. When deeper or faster charge is required, concentrators canbe used for additional light for photoanode charging alone, or externalelectricity of up to 0.9 VDC can be applied to the photoanode. And stillfaster and deeper charging can occur with an external electrical supplyof 2 VDC or more applied during the day in combination with thephotoanode, or separately at night as is now done to store night-timewind energy or excess grid electricity.

Many photoanodes are able to operate at light concentrations of 10 sunsand more. Some photoanodes' hydrogen production, and therefore charging,is linear with concentration up to 10 suns, after which hydrogenproduction increases more slowly, but even so the use of an opticalconcentrator may be beneficial to the economics or performance of thebattery. The scope of the present invention therefore includes combiningthe photoelectrochemical secondary cell and battery claimed herein withan optical concentrator such that sunlight or other light source iscollected, concentrated, and used to illuminate the photoanodes in saidinvention.

1. A photoelectrochemical secondary cell comprising: a case; aphotocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode disposed within the case;an anode electrode disposed within the case; a negative electrodecomprising substantially a metal hydride disposed within the case; saidphotocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode and anode electrode beingdisposed on opposite sides of a base with said anode electrode facingsaid negative electrode; a gas separator disposed in the case betweensaid anode electrode and said negative electrode and attached to theinside of the case to form two separate chambers; and an electrolytedisposed in both the chambers, the electrolyte being capable of beingreduced to hydrogen at the negative electrode; at least a portion of thecase being transparent to electromagnetic radiation required by saidphotocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode to charge saidphotoelectrochemical secondary cell.
 2. The photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell of claim 1 wherein the base provides separate electricalconnections to the anode electrode and to the photocatalytic anode orphotoanode electrode.
 3. The photoelectrochemical secondary cell ofclaim 1 wherein the base provides a common electrical connection to theanode electrode and to the photocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode.4. The photoelectrochemical secondary cell according to claim 1 whereinsaid photocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode comprises one or moreof the following: titania that is dyed; titania that is doped; strontiumtitanate; compounds and alloys of titania and titanium with tungsten,tungsten oxide, cadmium sulfide, iron, oxides of iron, or silicon;silicon seeded with nickel surface particles; nanotubes of titaniumdioxide; carbon nanotubes further comprising semiconductor materials;graphene; quantum dots; photonic bandgap crystals; strainedsemiconductor; and strained titania.
 5. The photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell according to claim 1 wherein said photocatalytic anode orphotoanode electrode and said anode electrode are provided with louversor other apertures.
 6. The photoelectrochemical secondary cell accordingto claim 1 wherein said anode electrode comprises at least one or moreof: nickel hydroxide on nickel; mixed metal oxides of ruthenium,titanium and iridium on titanium; plated nickel or nickel hydroxide filmon titanium; and nickel or nickel hydroxide particles on titanium; andwherein said titanium is a rod, plate, sheet, foil, or expanded mesh. 7.The photoelectrochemical secondary cell according to claim 1 whereinsaid anode electrode is formed by at least one or more of: applying apaste; sintering; calcification; thermal oxidation; anodizing; alloying;plating; powder coating; mechanical compression; casting; vacuumdeposition; or chemical vapor deposition.
 8. The photoelectrochemicalsecondary cell according to claim 1 wherein said gas separator comprisesa non-woven felt of at least one or more of: polyolefin; polyethylene;or polypropylene.
 9. The photoelectrochemical secondary cell accordingto claim 1 wherein said negative electrode comprises metal hydride inelectrical contact with a nickel foam ribbon.
 10. Thephotoelectrochemical secondary cell according to claim 1 wherein saidmetal hydride comprises a metal alloy of one or more of elemental forms:AB; AB2; AB5; or AB5-B.
 11. The photoelectrochemical secondary cellaccording to claim 1 wherein said portion of said case transparent toelectromagnetic radiation comprises at least one ofultraviolet-transmitting (UVT) acrylic or borosilicate 3.3 glass. 12.The photoelectrochemical secondary cell according to claim 1 whereinsaid electrolyte comprises at least one of potassium hydroxide orpotassium carbonate.
 13. The photoelectrochemical secondary cellaccording to claim 12 wherein said electrolyte further comprises one ormore of the following additives: co-electrolytes, additives for improvedhigh or low temperature performance, or for viscosity or polymerizationfor leak containment, methanol; thickeners; co-electrolytes; orrefractive index matching additives, or for more efficient gasevolution.
 14. The photoelectrochemical secondary cell according toclaim 1 wherein said transparent portion of said case is cylindrical,being either convex or concave.
 15. A photoelectrochemical secondarybattery comprising a plurality of photoelectrochemical secondary cellsaccording to claim
 1. 16. The photoelectrochemical secondary batteryaccording to claim 15 wherein said photoelectrochemical secondary cellsare connected electrically in at least one of series or in parallel. 17.A photoelectrochemical secondary battery comprising a plurality ofphotoelectrochemical secondary cells according to claim 1 or 2 stackedin a common case, with space and means between each of said cells tofacilitate guiding of external light to the photoanodes within each ofsaid cells, a portion of said case having a receiving window hat istransparent to the electromagnetic radiation required by saidphotoanodes to charge said secondary battery.
 18. Thephotoelectrochemical secondary battery according to claim 17 whereinsaid means of guiding of external light to said photoanodes canfacilitate light guiding processes including one or more of lightscattering, waveguiding, light-piping, diffraction, refraction, and orreflection, and further where said means of guiding includes the gasseparator material above said photoanode and/or by specialized separateoptical surface or surfaces, including holographic optical surface orsurfaces.
 19. The photoelectrochemical secondary battery according toclaim 18 wherein said receiving window is placed at the focus of a lightconcentrator.
 20. The photoelectrochemical secondary battery accordingto claim 17 further comprising charge control means to manage chargemodality by averting electrical shorting, said charge control meanscomprising an external charging management circuit which connects thephotocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode to the cathode forcharging, and disconnects the photocatalytic anode or photoanodeelectrode from the cathode upon full charge and for discharge.
 21. Thephotoelectrochemical secondary battery according to claim 17 whereinsaid plurality of photoelectrochemical secondary cells are adjacent andcoplanar.
 22. A method of storing hydrogen by photochemically and/orelectrochemically charging a metal hydride, the method comprising:providing a photoelectrochemical secondary battery comprising aphotocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode, an anode electrode, anegative electrode comprising substantially a metal hydride, and anencased electrolyte capable of being reduced to hydrogen at the negativeelectrode, the photocatalytic anode or photoanode electrode, the anodeelectrode and the negative electrode, all being immersed in theelectrolyte; exposing the photocatalytic anode or photoanode electrodeto radiation while applying zero bias voltage potential, or a biasvoltage potential that is lower than the theoretical water splittingvoltage of 1.48 VDC between said photocatalytic anode or photoanodeelectrode and said negative electrode, and/or applying a voltagepotential of at least 1.48 VDC between said anode electrode and saidnegative electrode, thereby charging said metal hydride with hydrogen.